Chernobyl



Chernobyl (Russian: Чернобыль) or Chornobyl (Ukrainian: Чорнобиль) is a town in Central Ukraine, and known infamously for the accident in the nearby nuclear power plant at Pripyat on 26 April 1986. The scale of remediation efforts (officially the liquidation of the accident aftermath) and subsequent engineering challenges such as construction of the iconic reactor sarcophagus, have drawn the interest of many curious travellers over the following decades. Chernobyl was visited by about 70,000 tourists annually before the COVID-19 outbreak, a number that had dropped to about a quarter because of the pandemic, only to be halted entirely because of the 24 February 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Radiation from the accident remains around the site, making access severely restricted, and leaving no doubt that the area is a dangerous place and decidedly not an amusement park.

A visit to the area was a unique experience and offered an insight into the scientific, technological and humanitarian aspects of the disaster. Alas, due to the war, Chernobyl is a next-to-impossible destination at the current time and non-essential travel to Ukraine is not advised by most Western governments.

Understand
"– The large dosimeter from the safe, the one with the 1,000 röntgen capacity... – What was the number? – There was none. The meter burned out the second it was turned on."

- Chernobyl, the HBO series

The name Chernobyl refers to the area around the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (often abbreviated to ChNPP) in the north of Ukraine bordering Belarus. Chernobyl is a town 15 km south of the power plant, and was the closest settlement known to exist by the Western media in 1986 when a catastrophic accident occurred in one of the power plant's 4 reactors. The city of Pripyat, built to house power plant employees, is next to the power plant and thus much closer than Chernobyl, but it was a closed city at the time and thus not known in the West. The accident thus became known as the Chernobyl disaster instead, and the name stuck.

The accident contaminated a large area around the power plant with radioactive fallout, and these areas were subsequently evacuated. This Zone of Alienation was expanded several times when the magnitude of the accident became clear, and eventually covered an area of 2,600 km2, roughly the size of Luxembourg. Special procedures were put in place to minimize spreading of radioactivity, and access to the area was restricted. It became known as the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. The exact borders of the Exclusion Zone have been adjusted several times to align them better with actual radioactive contamination levels, but the area remains roughly the same as in 1986. A lot of the fallout fell in Belarus rather than in Ukraine. As far away as in Sweden (where it happened to rain), mushroom and reindeer meat were deemed non-safe because of the fallout.

As radioactivity naturally decays away over time, radiation levels have been dropping over the past years. In the town of Chernobyl, for example, radiation levels are about the same as in Kyiv, and the once abandoned town is now inhabited again. Most of the Exclusion Zone remains deserted, however: a largely forested area with lakes and rivers, dotted with abandoned settlements and industrial installations. Although not nearly as dangerous anymore as it once was, it remains a nuclear wasteland that draws curiosity from travellers from around the world. The Exclusion Zone has been featured in popular media, most notably mainstream computer games like S.T.A.L.K.E.R and Call of Duty, which spread the mysteries of the Exclusion Zone to the broader public. The Chernobyl Exclusion Zone is probably the closest any place in the world gets to the digital game worlds seen in the Fallout series, which explains its popularity as a tourist attraction.

Although access to the Exclusion Zone is still restricted, guided tours were organized, most including transport from Kyiv to and from the Exclusion Zone. It was visited by 72,000 tourists in 2018. These tours ended with the 24 February 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and (as of 2022) have not been restarted.

The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant was constructed between 1972 and 1977 on the shore of the Pripyat river, about 100 km north of the Ukrainian capital Kyiv. Its location was selected because of the safe distance from the capital, the thinly populated area, and the proximity of water for cooling purposes. The plant has 4 massive nuclear reactors of the RBMK type, with a total electricity output of 4 GW — enough to power roughly 4 million microwave ovens. The plant design was innovative for the time, featuring hydrogen cooled generators with integrated electrolysis cells to generate the necessary hydrogen on site, as well as advanced computer systems. The machine hall housing the turbines and generators is one of the longest buildings in Europe with a length of 600 m.

The experiment
Aside from nuclear and electronic innovations, the plant also implemented automatic control and safety systems, which needed to be field tested in a live production environment, as was common with all Soviet technology at the time. Of particular concern was the safety system handling a so-called station blackout, a situation in which external factors lead to a complete loss of electrical power to the power plant. The reactors, each with a thermal output of 3.2 GW, must be actively cooled in such a situation to avoid their cores from melting, and to do so powerful pumps are installed to pump cooling water to the reactor cores. Backup diesel generators were available to generate the required electricity to drive the water pumps, but due to their sheer size, they took over a minute to get up to speed — a minute during which the cores would remain uncooled. This was considered an unacceptable safety risk. Engineers came up with a clever solution, and proposed to use the residual momentum of the massive turbines and generators, acting as giant flywheels, to keep pumps running until the backup diesel generators produce enough power to take over the responsibility of cooling the reactors. The idea worked in theory but had never been tested, and Reactor 4 of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant was selected to verify the theory with an experiment.

Engineers devised a test scenario in which the output power of Reactor 4 would be decreased to a much lower level, at which the steam pipes between the reactor and its turbines would be closed off to let the turbines flywheel down. Measurement equipment was installed to log the output power of the generators, and the crew in the reactor control room was briefed on the technical details of the test. Because closing steam valves were interpreted by the electronic safety systems as fatal incursions which caused an automatic reactor shutdown, it was decided to disable these safety systems and transfer manual control to the operators in the control room. Calculations showed safe operations at all time, the test was approved, and scheduled for the evening of 26 April 1986. As Ukrainians went to bed and power consumption dropped, the test began and the output power of Reactor 4 was throttled back according to plan.

An unexpected failure in another sub station elsewhere in Ukraine required the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant to take over power generation however, and electrical grid controllers demanded Reactor 4 to be brought back to full output power. Execution of the experiment needed to be postponed. By the time the issue was resolved and the experiment could resume, shifts in the control room staff had changed: the day shift had long gone home, and the evening shift was preparing to leave and hand over reactor control to the night shift. Because of the unexpected delay of the test, night shift operators had not been briefed, and instead of having to monitor decay heat in an otherwise shut down reactor, they were tasked to execute the test instead of their evening shift colleagues.

A series of human errors from the relatively inexperienced night shift operators resulted in the reactor being almost shut down completely, again causing the experiment to be postponed. It was decided to disable the last remaining automatic safety systems to get the reactor back online as quickly as possible, and all control rods were retracted manually. This left the reactor in an extremely unstable state that was not allowed by operational procedures. When the experiment finally started, shutting off the steam valves caused a positive feedback in the reactors output power, but alarms were ignored by the operators in the control room. With no automated safety systems counteracting reactor power fluctuations, the output power soared exponentially to over 11 times its rated maximum power level.

Reactor 4 explodes
The enormous heat produced by the reactor in a short time caused the remaining cooling water in the reactor core to flash to steam. The resulting shock wave blew the cover off the reactor, and the extremely hot reactor core caught fire when exposed to outside air. Volatile radioactive materials and small reactor particles were carried into the air by the fires updraft and started to rain down in a large area around the reactor. Pieces of reactor core were ejected from the reactor and landed in its vicinity, including the roof of adjacent Reactor 3, starting fires everywhere. The roof of Reactor 4 was completely destroyed, leaving the burning reactor core exposed to the environment and emitting deadly levels of radiation.

In the middle of the night, it was difficult to assess the exact magnitude of the accident. The fire fighting brigade of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant and the brigades from Pripyat and Chernobyl were rallied to the burning reactor in an attempt to put out the fire. No one expected the reactor to be damaged, being the first accident of its kind in history. Few radiation detectors were available, and none had a range sufficiently high to measure the radiation levels emitted by the burning reactor core. Firefighters only knew there were high radiation levels, but nobody new exactly how high they were. Only when the situation was assessed in the morning by a helicopter, it became clear what had happened when helicopter crews saw the burning reactor core from the air.

The meltdown
With nothing to cool the reactor core, it melted and mixed with concrete, steel, and other parts of the reactor, in what is known as a meltdown. The highly radioactive mass, having a lava-like consistency, started to melt its way through the bottom of the reactor. An immediate concern was this radioactive lava, now dubbed "corium", making contact with water in the flooded basement of the reactor building. In such an event the water would instantly flash into steam, causing a second steam explosion potentially sending even more radioactive materials into the atmosphere. A team of volunteers was assembled for a suicide mission, with the objective of finding the valves in the basement and opening them to drain the water. With only limited radiation protection and basic diving gear, the engineers managed to find the valves in the darkness of the flooded basement and successfully completed their mission. Contrary to media reports at the time, the team returned alive, and soon afterwards the corium melted its way into the basement as predicted. With nothing to stop the lava flow, contact with ground water was thought to be inevitable. Engineers came up with a plan that has never been tried before: freezing the earth under the reactor building. A team of coal miners was called in and tasked to tunnel under the reactor, installing pipes to inject liquid nitrogen (at -196 °C) into the earth to freeze it. As the corium spread out however, the decay heat alone was no longer sufficient to keep it liquid, and most of it solidified in the basement. One such formation became known as the Elephant's Foot after its shape. It is so radioactive that it has never been observed by humans directly; the only pictures made were taken around a corner with a mirror because intense radiation instantly destroys any camera equipment. With looking at it meaning certain death, the Elephant's Foot was referred to as the Medusa of Chernobyl.

Evacuation
When it had become evident that the burning reactor kept spewing radioactive materials into the atmosphere and could not be closed off from the environment in any way, authorities commanded the evacuation of all cities, towns, and villages around the power plant. At first the perimeter was only 5 km, but was quickly expanded to 10 km and then 30 km in the days after the accident. With winds initially favourable and directing the most radioactive fallout away from populated areas, conditions deteriorated rapidly after 3 days and threatened the city Pripyat with 50,000 inhabitants just 3 km north of the power plant. A large scale evacuation was ordered, with trains and over 1,000 buses arriving at the city to coordinate the evacuation efforts. It was initially thought that a method to contain the radioactivity would be found quickly, and the residents of Pripyat were told the evacuation would only be for a few days. Expecting to return swiftly, all but the most precious personal belongings were left behind, and when the evacuation became permanent, Pripyat and all other towns and villages were frozen in time.

To put a stop to plundering, the military took over security of the evacuated areas which were part of the Exclusion Zone. Hunting squads were dispatched to cities and towns to eliminate left behind pets, and cleaning teams went door to door to collect left-over food to prevent the outbreak of epidemics and pest infestations. Most former residents of the Exclusion Zone were resettled elsewhere in the Soviet Union, and with almost zero economic opportunities within the Zone, few ever returned. The Exclusion Zone remains a desolate nuclear wasteland today.

The Liquidators
The immediate surroundings of what remained of Reactor 4 had become extremely radioactive. Highly radioactive debris, among which parts of the reactor core itself, had been flung hundreds of metres away by the steam explosions, and volatile radioactive compounds vaporized by the intense heat of the burning reactor had rained down in a wider area. Excavators, diggers, bulldozers, and specialized robotic vehicles were rallied to the site to aid in the cleanup efforts. Many of the tasks still needed to be done by humans however, especially in areas with the highest levels of radioactivity where even robots were disabled by the intense radiation. The most notorious work to be done was the cleanup of the roof of Reactor 3, littered with lumps of smouldering graphite moderator and pieces of nuclear fuel. Volunteers from the army were dressed up in lead armour as crude protection against radiation and then sprinted over the roof to shovel debris over the edge back into the gaping void where Reactor 4 used to be. Intense radiation limited work time on the roof to only 40 seconds, after which radiation sickness kicks in. The actual doses were much higher than those measured, and many of these Liquidators — the unofficial name given to personnel tasked with the liquidation of the accident consequences — contracted radiation induced illnesses some time afterwards.

In an attempt to stop the chain reaction, the best helicopter pilots of the Soviet Union piloted the heaviest cargo helicopters in existence at the time over the burning reactor. They dropped sand, concrete, and boric acid into the reactor to shut it down, and exposed directly to the shine of the reactor below, most of the air crew received lethal doses of radiation. One of the helicopters struck cables from a nearby construction crane and crashed into the reactor, killing the crew. Aside from reactor control room operators killed by the steam explosions, these were the only recorded direct deaths caused by the accident — hundreds more fell ill in the days and weeks after their cleanup shifts, and eventually died of radiation poisoning. Although not all liquidators died, the term became a synonym to suicide missions in an attempt to contain the radioactive contamination. Tragically, it was revealed years later that most of the payloads dropped by helicopter crews missed their target, making the pilots' sacrifice in vain.

To remediate the contamination surrounding the destroyed reactor, the areas with the worst contamination were bulldozed. Trees received such high radiation doses that entire forests died, turning them red. These so-called Red Forests were bulldozed and the trees buried in trenches. Buildings were razed and the rubble also buried, the most radioactive areas were concreted over to prevent radioactive materials from escaping. On the outskirts of the Red Forest, directly west from the Pripyat city sign, many concrete patches can be found in the grass as tombstones sealing off their dangerous burials. Vehicles used in the liquidation efforts such as trucks, APCs, bulldozers, helicopters etc. were collected at a vehicle cemetery at Buriakivka. The cemetery could be visited until 2008, when authorities deemed it too dangerous. Some of the vehicles remain lethally radioactive even as of 2019. Some of the vehicles have since been scrapped and recycled. Some vehicles were buried with haste, and parts of them can still be seen sticking out of the ground. Personal protection equipment used by liquidators, mostly wellies and gloves, were dumped all over the place and remain radioactive hot spots today.

The Sarcophagus
With the remains of the extinguished reactor exposed to rain and wind, radioactive materials continued to be released into the atmosphere. Preventing further release of contamination was a priority, and by 20 May 1986, a mere 20 days after the accident, engineers had completed the design for a containment building to seal off the reactor remains from the outside world. A massive civil engineering project ensued, in an effort to quickly construct what was soon called the Sarcophagus. Construction took 206 days in extreme conditions, with builders exposed to lethal radiation levels. Over 400 000 m³ of concrete and 7 300 tons of steel were used in the construction of the Sarcophagus, designed to entomb 250 tons of reactor debris and radioactive dust. By the time the Sarcophagus was nearing completion, its inside had become too radioactive for welding, and thus not all the voids could be properly sealed. The Sarcophagus was designed to last at least 30 years, giving engineers ample time to come up with a more permanent solution. Together with the adjacent chimney, the Sarcophagus became the most iconic sight associated with the accident, and the single most photographed structure in Ukraine after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

The Zone of Alienation
Little is known that the other 3 operational reactors of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant kept producing electricity long after the accident, because the Ukrainian government could not afford to lose the production capacity. After the independence of Ukraine in 1991 however, countries bordering Ukraine and European Union member states became concerned about the state of the 3 operating nuclear reactors and the possible lack of maintenance they received after the withdrawal of Soviet scientists from the site. Political pressure was increased to shut down the reactors, and Reactor 3 — ironically the one next to the destroyed Reactor 4 — was the last one to be taken offline in December 2000, over 16 years after the accident had occurred.

The New Safe Confinement


When visiting the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant today, visitors get to see neither the iconic chimney nor the Sarcophagus, the latter now encapsulated in a giant some 100 m high arch called the New Safe Confinement building, often referred to as the NSC. Its construction was a joint international effort, finished late 2018. Unlike the Sarcophagus, the NSC is designed as a permanent solution with the explicit purpose to provide facilities for future dismantling of existing structures and final remediation of the site — whenever that will be. The chimney was demolished to make space for the NSC, and with it, the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant has lost its most famous and recognizable points of interest. The NSC was constructed 140 m west of the Sarcophagus, and was pushed over the Sarcophagus on rails using hydraulic pistons. With a length of 270 m and width of 150 m, the NSC is the largest land based movable structure on the planet.

Guided tours stopped at a monument about 200 m from the NSC, dedicated to the workers who sacrificed their health in the construction of the Sarcophagus. Much in contrast with 1986, the radiation levels around the power plant are very low nowadays (never exceeding 5 µSv/h), and thus very safe to visit.

The NSC includes robotic systems to help in the disassembly and decommissioning of the Sarcophagus and remains of Reactor 4, hence none of these cleanup efforts will be visible to visitors. With the exact magnitude of cleanup efforts still very much left to be determined, the shiny metallic shape of the NSC promises to dominate the landscape for years to come.

Current status
Pripyat is a freeze-frame of 1980s Soviet life. Propaganda slogans still hang on walls, and children's toys and other items remain as they were. Buildings are rotting, paint is peeling and looters have taken away anything that might have been of value. Trees and grass are eerily reclaiming the land. The Exclusion Zone is somewhat of a macabre tourist destination. In 2002, it opened for tourism, and in 2004 there were 870 visitors, a number that increased to 70 000 in 2018, up 20 000 from 2017. In an effort to evoke sentiment from tourists, guides have unfortunately been tempted by manipulating Pripyat history, for example by leaving behind half decayed teddy bears in certain locations.

Even 33 years after the accident, a debate about its total number of fatalities is still ongoing. Fearing bad PR, the USSR for several years forbade medical examiners from listing radiation as a cause of death. Estimates of deaths related to the accident range from 56 to 1,000,000! The World Health Organization suggests the final figure could reach 4,000 civilian deaths, a figure not including casualties among liquidators from the Soviet military forces. The numbers presented for consequential death from radiation exposure induced illness and cancer vary considerably, with Greenpeace giving estimates of more than 200,000. A Russian publication concluded that between 1986–2004 there were 985,000 premature cancer deaths worldwide as a result of radioactive contamination from Chernobyl.

The largest inhabited settlement in the Exclusion Zone in 2019 is the town Chernobyl, after which the nuclear power station was named. About 3,000 people live there, and almost all work in the Exclusion Zone on a 15 days in, 15 days off rotation schedule. Including tourists and officials (UAEA inspectors, engineers, scientists), the population count of the Exclusion Zone now varies between 5,000 and 7,000, so you will certainly not be alone anymore when visiting.

On 25 February 2022, Chernobyl was invaded by Russia as part of its invasion of Ukraine. Russian control of the site appears to have now ended, but the occupiers have done extensive and reckless damage, from digging battle trenches into some of the most radioactive and contaminated soil on the planet to interfering with electricity supplies needed to cool the ruined plant to looting computers and other valuable equipment. While the site is now stable and the worst possible disaster averted, Ukraine remains at war and is fighting for its life at the hands of the Russian occupiers. The guided tours of Pripyat will not be returning any time soon.

Read

 * Svetlana Alexievich's Voices from Chernobyl: The Oral History of a Nuclear Disaster offers personal insight into the lives of residents before and after meltdown. ISBN 0312425848.
 * UNSCEAR's assessments of the radiation effects.

Cities and towns
With the exception of the town Chernobyl itself, all cities and towns in the Exclusion Zone are officially abandoned. In reality, this is only enforced in areas within the 10 km Zone of Alienation around Reactor 4, and since radiation levels have naturally decayed away, some villages on the outskirts of the Exclusion Zone are being reoccupied by settlers.
 * (Ukrainian: Чорнобиль) — The only inhabited town in the Exclusion Zone, after which the Nuclear Power Plant was named.
 * (Ukrainian: При́п’ять) — Once a closed city built for employees of the Nuclear Power Plant, and completely evacuated in the days after the accident. Famously featured in many computer games, and a popular tourist destination within the Exclusion Zone.
 * (Ukrainian: Буряківка) — Town about 20 km from the nuclear power plant, and one of the settlements in the direct path of the radioactive fallout cloud. It was evacuated and abandoned. Several buildings remain, in varying degrees of decay. Radiation levels vary between 1 µSv/h on roads and 3.5 µSv/h in forested areas as of 2019. There is also an abandoned railway station 2 km north west of the town.
 * — Town near the Belarus border, officially evacuated but continues to be inhabited by about 20 people.
 * — Abandoned town with a security checkpoint for visitors entering the Exclusion Zone from Belarus.
 * — Abandoned town with a security checkpoint for visitors entering the Exclusion Zone from Belarus.

There are a few abandoned villages in the exclusion zone, and they are extremely interesting to view. Visitors can see farmhouses, small cottages and plenty of vegetation. Be careful entering any of these areas, as vegetation always carries far higher levels of residual radioactivity than concreted areas. Guides will always tell you not to step on the moss, and the dust in dried-out puddles tends to concentrate radioactivity. In addition, pay attention to where you are walking, as most buildings have been damaged due to a combination of neglect and due to being actively damaged by people.

Get in
"Can we actually— We can't go there, can we?"

- James May, Top Gear, "Ukraine Road Trip"

Tourist visits to the Exclusion Zone have been suspended following the 2022 Russian invasion of the CEZ, and the resulting damage to infrastructure. Unless you're a nuclear scientist, engineer, or affiliated with the IAEA or Ukrainian Government, it is impossible to legally enter the CEZ.

Due to the tense situation with Belarus, as of Apr 2022 there is no longer a direct route from Slavutych to the CEZ. Instead, reaching Chernobyl from Slavutych now requires a detour through Kyiv which takes about 7 hours.

The was destroyed by Ukrainian defenders in an attempt to slow the 2022 Russian invasion, and it is, as of Apr 2022, not possible to reach Chernobyl from the Dityatki checkpoint. The checkpoint itself has also been severely damaged, and is no longer accepting tourist applications.

To gain access to the Exclusion Zone, a permit is required. The most common way of obtaining one is through an excursion with a tour operator, which can easily be booked online. Pre-booking is mandatory and most recommend to do so at the latest a week in advance for them to obtain the permit for you.

Foreigners must have their passports on them to enter the exclusion zone, together with their permit printed out. Present passport and permit at the, after which guards will scan the QR code on the permit and verify identity. During the verification process, visitors are required to wait outside their vehicle, so dress appropriately before arriving at the checkpoint. The larger checkpoints have information displays to help visitors, and may also include souvenir booths playing songs from the Fallout game series to make the immersive experience complete! Avoid making photographs of the security check points, officers, or soldiers, as this may result in cameras being confiscated and/or photos erased.

Government agency with jurisdiction over the site in regulation No.1157 stipulates that a request for a Zone permit must be applied for at least 10 office days (which can make up to 14 calendar days) prior to the planned visit.



Safety rules
All visitors are given a list of safety rules, which must be read and signed before entering the Exclusion Zone:
 * Do not act as in an amusement park: It is the site of a nuclear disaster and still dangerous, so act reasonably and responsibly.
 * Do not take pictures/footage of security measures: Police, guards, checkpoints, CCTV cameras and systems of physical protection are not the right place for cool selfies.
 * Do not touch anything and do not sit on the ground: Try to avoid any contact with potentially contaminated surfaces. When you sit on the ground or any place, you significantly increase the risk of contaminating yourself.
 * Avoid additional exposure: It is forbidden to wear shorts, t-shirts, skirts or other open types of clothing during a visit.
 * Do not take items that originate from the Zone: It is not only very dangerous for your health but also strictly prohibited by the Law.
 * Do not eat or drink at open air: You can swallow radioactive dust along with food, and they will remain inside your body.
 * Do not consume alcohol and/or drugs: While in the Zone, you must be sober and in adequate condition. No exceptions.
 * Do not smoke anywhere except designated places: Smoking often causes fires, and remains add trash.

Get around
Public transport facilities in the Exclusion Zone are limited to bus services only. During day time there are regular services between the in Chernobyl town and the  of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.

Many of the tourist attractions (Duga radar, Buriakivka, Kopachi, ...) are not served by the public transport services, so it is recommended to hire a vehicle with driver to get around.

The distances inside the Exclusion Zone are vast, roads are in a deplorable condition, and there are no sidewalks or bike lanes. Private motorized vehicles are the only realistic alternative to public bus services.

When leaving the Zone of Alienation, the area within 10 km of the exploded reactor, every vehicle will be checked with a radiation detector at a. All passengers need to leave the vehicle and must pass through a detection portal to check for any radioactive contamination on hands, body, clothes, or shoes. The detection portals are completely automated: simply step in sideways, placing feet on the bottom detectors and hands on the detection plates on either side of the portal. The barrier will unlock after a few seconds if no contamination is detected. If radioactive contamination is detected on clothes or shoes, they must be taken off and washed off. If contamination can't be removed then these clothes must be left behind. If contamination is detected on your body, you will be asked to take a shower before being rechecked by the radiation detection portal.

See








Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
The power plant, home to four decommissioned RBMK-1000 reactors, offers amazing insight into Soviet nuclear and architectural engineering practices for those able to arrange in-depth visits. Commercial tours stop only at the Reactor 4 observation pavilion. Visitors wishing to experience the interior of the plant must request permission via a letter faxed to the plant's general director (Igor Gramotkin) as outlined on the plant's website. The letter should introduce you or your group, and explain in detail what you want to see. Admission, by no means guaranteed, presumably favors professionals employed in relevant fields. Visitors are issued badges and indirectly-read TLD-type dosimeters at the power plant entrance, then pass through a modern security checkpoint in the ABK-1 administrative building, and thereafter are given cotton coats, caps, and booties in preparation for entering the radiological control zone. A higher standard of dosimetry and personal protective equipment may be issued for some areas, such as the "Sarcophagus." Visitors' own dosimetry devices are not allowed inside ChNPP. Always be mindful that this is a fueled nuclear facility and security is taken seriously. Strictly follow directions from plant personnel about photography, and never attempt to rest anything on the floor (it may be confiscated due to contamination). The exit portal monitors at ChNPP are thankfully much less sensitive than those found in most American nuclear plants, but still it's a good idea to wear fresh clothes and shoes rather than articles that may have been contaminated elsewhere in the Zone. In 2011, visitation was allowed to Unit 3 main circulation pump rooms, the live 750-kV switchyard control room, the Unit 1 control room, the Phase 1 dosimetry panel, and the memorial to engineer Valery Khodemchuk in the ventilation building between Reactors 3 and 4, among other places. The turbine hall was closed due to excessive radioactivity in 2011, but was accessible in 2010. A particularly interesting place is the bunker under ABK-1 that is used as an emergency response center (as it was in the 1986 accident).

The power plant has a cafeteria that serves freshly-prepared and appetizing Ukrainian food.

Some commercial tours may stop to feed bread to the monstrous catfish living in the condenser cooling channel that flows under the railroad bridge near ABK-1. Do not take pictures in the direction of the power plant from this location. (Your guide will probably make this rule abundantly clear.)

ChNPP has its own train station,. Trains travel without stopping between Semikhody and Slavutych. The service is free. As there are no stops while the train passes through Belarus, there are no border controls. Visitors exiting the Exclusion Zone via Semikhody must pass through a portal monitor and their personal belongings may be frisked for radionuclide contamination.









Pripyat
The famous abandoned city, which once housed 50,000 residents. Sights to see are the schools, kindergarten, public buildings and the amazing cultural palace which contains a swimming pool, cinema and gymnasium, and overlooks the famous ferris wheel. Hazards are the crumbling buildings, and decaying wooden floors in places – so be careful. The government has deemed all buildings in the town condemned, so most tours will not let you enter the buildings*.

''*As of 2019, entry into all buildings in Pripyat is banned, because as the buildings age they become structurally unstable, and the government and most tour groups would rather not deal with the results of a tour group being caught in a cave-in. Experienced guides in some tours, however, know which buildings are "safe" (stable enough) to enter, and will take groups in for photos. If they do, only go where they go as they know what parts of the buildings are stable and what parts aren't. Generally this is limited to the sports facility (the pool) and the roof of an apartment tower. Most of the buildings were 'cleaned' of their radiation during the liquidation process and now contain amounts similar to downtown Kyiv, so the dangers come not from radiation but from the buildings themselves. Places like the amusement park and the main square are still accessible because they don't involve entering any buildings.''

Minibus day-trips from Kyiv typically stop in the town's center, at the west end of Lenin Street near the Palace of Culture. Short-term visitors are confined to the pavement at ground level; if you join one of these tours, your risk exposure is minimal, but so too is your exposure to the vast cultural reliquary that is Pripyat. A more in-depth visit (several days, staying overnight at the InterInform hotel in Chernobyl, eating meals at the InterInform stolovaya) costs about US$200 per person per day in a group of four (2011). The long-term visitor is rewarded with considerably more freedom to explore, accompanied of course by an InterInform guide.

Decades of neglect have resulted in a physically-hazardous ex-urban environment in which radiation is of distant, secondary concern. Hazards include uncovered manholes in the middle of barely-recognizable streets, open elevator shafts, flooded basements, decayed wooden floors, collapsed roofs, large amounts of broken glass, challenging footpath obstructions in dark hallways, and quite possibly asbestos. Flashlights are essential to exploring interiors. Although radiation isn't a relatively major concern, the "hotter" spots in town would most certainly be off-limits to the public in the United States or Western Europe. As an example, the basement of the Polyclinic contains first responders' clothing (firefighters' clothes, boots, helmets, etc.) and presents external gamma exposure rates approaching one roentgen (R) per hour (June 2010). As of October 2017, the only access into the hospital basement is by crawling through a hole dug after the basement access was deliberately buried. Some other hot spots are well known to guides and they can either help you avoid these places or find them if so inclined. The hot spots most commonly visited by tours are mostly marked with radiation signage. These hot spots are generally either places that were not decontaminated previously, contaminated objects, or locations where radioactive materials have collected together due to rain runoff. The most important precaution concerning radioactivity is to avoid ingesting loose contamination. Although your guide might eat snacks or smoke in Pripyat, you should not – particularly if you have been handling things or visiting places like the hospital basement. Buy an ample supply of drinking water at one of the magazines in Chernobyl before going to Pripyat (obviously there is not potable water there). Water can also be used to rinse contaminated shoes before re-entering vehicles.



Buy
Since all goods, including food and beverages, are imported into the Exclusion Zone from elsewhere in Ukraine, anything you purchase in the Exclusion Zone is more expensive than in the rest of Ukraine. The only shops are convenience and grocery stores, of which there are quite a few in Chernobyl town. They all sell very similar items: water, sodas, spirits, sausages and dried meats, canned foods, frozen foods, and a limited selection of convenience items and dairy products. Fresh fruits and vegetables are hard to find in the Exclusion Zone.

As a general rule, shops in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone only accept cash. There is an at Radianska, but the amount of cash that can be retrieved is limited per transaction.

Souvenirs
With tourism in the Exclusion Zone booming after the 2019 HBO series on the Chernobyl accident, it is no surprise that a variety of nuclear themed souvenirs are available. The most popular ones are t-shirts, mugs, and coins. They can be purchased in most shops and restaurants in Chernobyl town. The iconic gift shop at the Dityatki security checkpoint, famous for playing Fallout themed music, has been destroyed during the 2022 Russian invasion of the Exclusion Zone.



Eat
There are no formal restaurants or snack bars in the Exclusion Zone, so normally all food must be brought in from outside the Exclusion Zone. If you're looking for pizza, noodles, or sushi, then your only options are restaurants outside the Exclusion Zone. There are shops selling meats, dried fish, and canned vegetables as alternative to restaurants within the Exclusion Zone.

Berries and fruits found in the forests within the Exclusion Zone all likely absorbed radioactive materials from the soil and are radioactive in varying degrees. Do not eat anything found in the Exclusion Zone. Mushrooms in particular tend to have a strong affinity towards radioactive substances and tend to accumulate respectable activity levels.

It is prohibited to consume food in open air within a 10-km range around the power plant.

It is recommended by tour agencies to only consume food and drink while on the buses/cars/vans and not while out on tour, to avoid exposing the consumables to potentially radioactive dust particles in the air.

Drink
All surface water in the Exclusion Zone is unsafe for drinking or washing because of radioactive contamination of the aquifer, so assume that all lakes and rivers are polluted with radionuclides. Stick to bottled water, which in Ukraine is predominantly sparkling.

Spirits, most commonly vodka and derived alcoholic drinks, are abundantly available in every grocery store in Chernobyl and relatively cheap.

A special Chernobyl beer is sold in select venues in Chernobyl. The beer is humorously said to improve communication between like-minded people, and helps to 'decontaminate' organisms in the Zone of Alienation. The bottles are easily recognizable by the green labels with a picture of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant after the accident printed on them.

Sleep




Visitors have one (legal) option for spending the night in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, and it is the government-run hotel in central Chernobyl. Any of the tour companies mentioned elsewhere on this page can, in principle, make bookings for visitors at the hotel as part of the process of registering the tour with the InterInform Agency. Rules are constantly in flux; if you want to stay overnight in Chernobyl, ask your tour operator about it and make sure to plan early.

If you are accustomed to lodging standards in Kyiv, you will find the InterInform Agency hotel surprisingly affordable for the level of comfort provided. The buildings are prefabricated structures installed after the 1986 accident. Many rooms are actually suites, some larger than others. Some rooms have useful amenities like refrigerators, dining tables, sofas, or dishes—luck of the draw. Each room has its own bathroom and shower. Tap water is potable. No WiFi (2011). The buildings are not air-conditioned, but (hopefully!) the windows will be unlocked and screened in the summer. The main Interinform office building has the largest suites, while the annex to the east contains more rooms and even a chapel on the first floor with faux-stained-glass windows. Radiation levels at the InterInform Hotel are close to Kyiv background.

Hotel guests are not permitted to leave the premises without an authorized guide! This includes innocuously walking 500 m down the street to buy drinks, snacks or batteries at one of the magazins. If the very-abundant police catch you out on the town without your guide, you can expect a pleasant little march over to the police station near the Lenin statue and old Dom Kulturi, where they have an open-air gazebo set up with folks like you in mind. There you'll wait in contrition until your guide retrieves you.

The InterInform Agency canteen on the ground floor of the west building offers prix fixe dining by reservation only. Reservations made when the tour is booked with InterInform are about US$10 for lunch or dinner, but if meals must be arranged on the day of service, higher prices are charged. The canteen serves three meals a day at fixed times. Dinner is a multi-course, freshly-prepared, traditional Ukrainian set meal with very large portions and typically paired with a traditional beverage like kompot; even after a day of strenuous exploration in Pripyat, it may be hard to eat all the food they bring you, at the pace they bring it. Chances are nobody will check you for contamination or remind you to wash up before eating, but that would be a very good idea to do on your own.



Backcountry camping
As radiation levels in most of the Exclusion Zone continue to drop, backcountry camping is gaining more popularity as an alternative to spending the night in one of the designated hotels in Chernobyl town. Exploring the Exclusion Zone on foot and spending the night outdoors is probably the closest you'll ever get to a Fallout game experience. Spending the night in a tent in the world's most famous nuclear wasteland is a unique opportunity, but not for the faint of heart! It is strictly prohibited to make a camp fire due to the risk of forest fires, so electric torches are the only way to fend off wild animals—wolves and bears roam around at night. Rather than setting up your tent outside, it is recommended to set it up indoors instead, in one of the many abandoned warehouses or barns dotting the Exclusion Zone.

When traversing the Exclusion Zone off-road, make sure to bring an up-to-date radiation map, a compass, and a mobile satellite navigation system. Bring a radiation detector to verify radiation levels where you want to set up your camp, keep in mind that you'll be spending at least 6 to 8 hours here, so absorbed doses can accumulate fast. Aim for a dose rate of 10 µSv/h or lower where you set up camp. Setting up camp in or close to the Red Forest (the area with the highest radioactivity levels) is a bad idea, spending the night there may cause radiation sickness.

Urban exploration
If in Pripyat, exercise caution when entering buildings—the ground around entrances to, and inside buildings will generally be littered with broken glass, concrete and debris. Be sure to take care inside buildings as the flooring can be somewhat uneven (and sometimes unstable), handrails are missing, and elevator doors be left open with no elevator present. Watch your footing—a decent pair of shoes or boots would be a good idea. Tours are no longer allowed to enter the buildings due to an accident involving a floor collapsing injuring several tourists. All visitors sign written acknowledgements of the Exclusion Zone rules, including the rules prohibiting structural access. However, it remains routine (2017) for in-depth custom tours to enter Pripyat structures and forested areas at the discretion of the guide.

Although some of the switch gear and power line infrastructure has been decommissioned after the shutdown of the 3 last reactors in the late 1990s, electrical power is supplied to the nuclear power plant site, Chernobyl, and many air quality monitoring stations from outside the Exclusion Zone. Do not touch electrical cables or other electrical infrastructure, even if they're laying on the ground, as many of these still carry live voltages.

Wildlife
Withdrawal of almost all human activity from the Exclusion Zone allowed nature to retake the area. Boars and bears are common as evidenced by hoof and paw prints in mud, and might attack when they feel cornered or threatened. Bears particularly enjoy the shelter of abandoned buildings, so make sure to make lots of noise when approaching buildings and never obstruct the path to (and away out from) a door to provide an easy escape route for animals that feel trapped.

Packs of wolves also roam through the Exclusion Zone, have grown in numbers, and are not afraid to venture into human occupied territories like the Chernobyl town. Inhabited properties are often fenced off with tall walls to keep wolves out, and it is common for doors to be locked at night. If you decide to bring smaller dogs or other pets into the Exclusion Zone, do not leave them outside at night!

Photography
Rising political tensions with neighbours Belarus and Russia have increased security around the nuclear power plant, with armed guards at security checkpoints and patrolling soldiers a common sight in the direct proximity of the plant. Do not make photographs of the checkpoints or whoever guards them. When photographing the NSC or any of the former power plant structures, avoid putting the and its supporting structures in view, as this tends to make guards nervous. When caught, your camera might be confiscated or your SD card formatted.

Stay healthy
Beside the invisible radiation danger, there are the too small to easily notice ticks, which can be encountered in abundance in grassy areas and grasslands. When bitten by a tick there is a chance of contracting Borreliosis (Lyme disease), with risk of severe permanent consequences such as paralysis of limbs. When venturing into grasslands, cover as much skin as possible (long trousers and sleeves), and wear high wellies rather than regular shoes. If you spot ticks on clothes, wipe them off before they can reach down to your skin. If red concentric circles appear after three days up to a month after visiting, you might be infected and should consult a doctor immediately. Tick bites can not always be felt, so inspect your skin meticulously when undressing!

As of September 2020, there is an active rabies outbreak in the Exclusion Zone. Any contact with wild animals should be avoided, and a rabies vaccine is recommended.

Most forested areas should be avoided. Whereas areas accessible to tourists near the reactor and Pripyat generally has low radiation in most areas (but notably not in the hospital basement), forested areas may have higher levels of radiation, in part because no decontamination was attempted in those areas.

Do not ingest any material found within the exclusion zone as it may be radioactive. Food and drinks at the canteen do not come from the exclusion zone, so they should be safe.

Radiation hygiene is a very important consideration for in-depth visits, both for your safety and because radioactive contamination discovered on visitors at the Zone checkpoints is construed as prima facie evidence of rules violations (entering structures and straying from paved areas). If you go to the Zone with the goal of exploring and wallowing in the most contaminated areas (e.g. the Pripyat polyclinic or the "Red Forest"), pay attention! As of 2013, the Lelev checkpoint at the 10 km boundary is operational and all visitors must pass through the portal monitors while a police officer scans the vehicle and its interior contents with a scintillator; thus, it is no longer possible to plan on cleaning up at accommodations in Chernobyl in order to pass inspection at the 30-km boundary. You must be radiologically pristine (well, almost!) before getting back in the vehicle after going exploring. Take the following hygiene equipment, which you should have in easy reach for when you return to your vehicle: Wear gloves while exploring to avoid contaminating hands. After exploration in contaminated areas, remove any obviously-contaminated outerwear like coverall or gloves or street clothes and pack it out in your luggage like a good citizen (low levels of contamination on these articles will be detected by the personnel portal monitors, but will not be noticed in luggage by the wand detectors the police use). Pass the GM probe over your body slowly and identify any spots exceeding about 500 CPM. First, attempt to wash as much of the contamination in these areas off by means of water and brushing. Contaminated hair or shoelaces should simply be cut off, as washing these will prove futile. Shoe soles are sometimes resistant to washing, in which case the offending spots should be reduced by cutting off with a knife. Your goal during cleanup should be to eliminate any spots on your body where the count rate exceeds 500 CPM on the pancake instrument, with particular attention to feet and hands. Avoiding contamination in the first place would in theory be preferable, but if you're reading this, you probably didn't come to Chernobyl to sit around staying clean.
 * Pancake thin-window Geiger-Muller survey instrument. Cover the probe with a plastic bag to avoid contaminating it.
 * Disposable gloves
 * An abundance of carbonated bottled water, purchased at one of the small stores in Chernobyl before you head out to explore
 * A cleaning brush with long bristles
 * Pocket knife for cutting contaminated spots out of shoe soles (disposable shoe covers are a nice idea but they always break)
 * Scissors for cutting contaminated hair
 * A change of clothes and/or a disposable Tyvek coverall

The levels of radiation on guided tours are relatively small; radiation levels in most places are less than those of being in an aircraft flying at 30,000 ft. The main danger is not in the radiation, but in particles of radioactive materials that may remain on your clothes or items. Those who actually follow the rules (stay on pavement, out of buildings) will almost never trigger the portal monitor alarms at Dytyatky and can safely ignore the in-depth "radiation hygiene" discussion above.

A lethal dose of radiation is in the range of 3–5 Sv (sieverts) (300–500 roentgens) when administered within an hour. Levels on the tour reportedly range from 0.15 to several microsieverts (µSv) per hour (fifteen to several hundred microroentgens an hour). A microsievert is one-millionth of a sievert.

Example: On a six-hour trip arranged in October 2008 the total dose was 4 microsieverts according to the meter (400 microroentgens). This was less than the total dose of the connecting two-hour flight, which was 6 microsieverts (600 microroentgens). Radiation levels by the power plant were 1.7 microsieverts per hour (170 microroentgens per hour) and they varied between 0.4 and 9.5 µSv per hour (40–950 microroentgens per hour) in the Pripyat amusement park. Thus, risks are pretty much non-existent as long as you avoid hot spots and don't get yourself contaminated.

The International Council on Radiation Protection has a recommended annual limit of 50 mSv (5 rem) (uniform irradiation of the whole body) for nuclear plant workers.

Clinical effects are seen at 750–2,000 mSv (75–200 rem) when administered in a short time scale.

Since the levels are microsieverts (10−6) the general exposure level is very low. But it is still possible to be in contact with some very hot surfaces, so caution should be stressed.

One rem is equal to 1.07 R (roentgen), or 0.01 sieverts or 10 millisieverts.

Connect
There was no mobile communication infrastructure in the Exclusion Zone at the time of the accident, and none has been built ever since, so don't count on wireless reception. Notable exceptions are the area around the power plant and Chernobyl, which have 3G connectivity, and are the only places where you can get online. If you join a tour, your coach may be equipped with wireless internet.

There are no internet cafes, and there is no postal service in the Exclusion Zone. Post cards are for sale at the canteen in Chernobyl for 15 грн, but you'll need to take them out of the Zone to post them.

Respect
When visiting the Exclusion Zone, keep in mind that this is still a disaster area that only just started its long way toward recovery. Some of the locals have lively memories of how the accident unfolded, and almost everyone has been affected by it: people have been forced to evacuate, and many have lost relatives due to radiation induced effects.

Do not expect to be welcomed warmly into the Exclusion Zone. Tourists are only tolerated because they bring revenue into an area where virtually all other economic activities have ceased since 1986. This is not a safari park but the site of the worst civilian nuclear disaster in the history of mankind, so behave accordingly when interacting with locals. Being interested and asking questions is okay, but excitement is misplaced.

Go next
It's not possible to cross the border with Belarus from the Ukrainian side because the border runs through the Exclusion Zone and there are no manned border crossings. Onward travel options are:
 * Kyiv — the capital city, metropolis, with endless architectural sights and tourist attractions
 * Chernihiv — has a direct train connection with ChNPP which passes through Belarus, however there are no stations on Belorussian territory and therefore no border formalities